1. Field of Invention
This invention relates to a chromium supplement for animals. More particularly, the present invention relates to the supplementation to animals, particularly mammals or birds, of chromium as chromium propionate. The present invention specifically relates to the addition of chromium propionate to a diet containing a balanced level of dietary energy that results in an increase in average daily gain relative to the level of dietary energy and/or improved meat quality.
2. Background of the Prior Art
Chromium is a trace element. This trace element has been identified as a glucose tolerance factor and appears to facilitate this action of insulin in a number of animals and humans. Recent research has shown that chromium supplementation in pigs(Amoikon, E. K., J. M. Fernandez, L. L. Southern, D. L. Thompson, Jr., T. L. Ward and B. M. Olcott. 1995. Effect of chromium tripicolinate on growth, glucose tolerance, insulin sensitivity, plasma metabolites, and growth hormone in pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 73:1123.), lambs lambs (Kitchalong, L., J. M. Fernandez, L. D. Bunting, A. M. Chapa, L. S. Sticker, E. K. Amoikon, T. L. Ward, T. D. Bidner, and L. L. Southern. 1993. Chromium picolinate supplementation in lamb rations: Effects on performance, nitrogen balance, endocrine and metabolic parameters. J. Anim. Sci. 71(Suppl. 1):291 (Abstr.)), and calves(Bunting, L. D., J. M. Fernandez, D. L. Thompson, Jr., and L. L. Southern. 1994. Influence of chromium picolinate on glucose usage and metabolic criteria in growing Holstein calves. J. Anim. Sci. 72:1591.) increases the glucose disappearance rate and decreases the glucose half-life. The form that the chromium is administered in, organic or inorganic, appears to change the magnitude of the mammals' response, with the better result coming from certain organic forms of chromium. The best bioavailability results appear to be from chromium picolinate, with less bioavailability in chromium rich yeast.
Chromium has been linked to the metabolism of lipids, and protein. Chromium decreases serum triglycerides and increases high density lipoproteins. In rabbits, testing has shown that chromium decreases cholesterol and assists in removal of deposited cholesterol (Yamamoto, A., O. Wanda and S. Manabe. 1989. Evidence that chromium is an essential factor for biological activity of low-molecular weight, chromium-binding substance. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 163:189-193).
Inconsistent responses in both biological and performance animal testing, relative to the cost of supplementation, have prevented wide acceptance of dietary chromium. Suggested causes for such inconsistencies include the level and bioavailability of chromium naturally occurring in feed ingredients, duration of feeding and the historical chromium status of the pig (NRC. 1998. Nutrient requirements of swine (10.sup.th Ed.). 1998. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.). Additionally, dietary amino acid levels may also affect the animal's response to chromium (White, M., J. Pettigrew, J. Zollitsch-Stelzl, and B. Crooker. 1993. Chromium in swine diets. Pp. 251-261 in Proceedings of the 54.sup.th Minnesota Nutrition Conference and National Renderers Technical Symposium; Lindemann, M. D., C. M. Wood, A. F. Harper, E. T. Komegay, and R. A. Anderson. 1995b. Dietary chromium picolinate additions improve gain:feed and carcass characteristics in growing-finishing pigs and increase litter size in reproducing sows. J. Anim. Sci. 73:457-465). A recent study demonstrated that the chemical form of supplemental chromium may play a role in at least the level of animal response measured (Matthews, J. O., L. L. Southern, J. M. Fernandez, A. M. Chapa, L. R. Gentry and T. D. Binder. 1997. Effects of dietary chromium tripicolinate or chromium propionate on growth, plasma metabolites, glucose tolerance, and insulin sensitivity in pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 75 (Suppl. 1): 187 (Abstr.)). That study measured plasma metabolites, hormones, glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity when pigs were supplemented with 200-ppb of either chromium picolinate or chromium propionate (in the form of KemTRACE.RTM. Chromium, a source of chromium propionate available commercially from Kemin Industries, Inc., Des Moines, Iowa) (U.S. Pat. No. 5,846,581).
Research specifically addressing the effects of chromium on pork (meat) quality is limited. Boleman (Boleman, S. L., S. J. Boleman, T. D. Bidner, T. L. Ward, L. L. Southern, J. E. Pontif and M. M. Pike. 1995. Effect of chromium picolinate on growth, body composition, and tissue accretion in pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 73:2033-2042) reported no response to water holding capacity (purge loss) or firmness/wetness sensory criteria to chromium from chromium picolinate, however shear force was increased by chromium treatment. More recently, a study at Kansas State University (O'Quinn, P. R., J. W. Smith, II, J. L. Neissen, M. D. Tokach, R. D. Goodband, and K. Q. Owen. 1998. Effects of source and level of added chromium on growth performance and carcass characteristics of growing-finishing pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 76 (Suppl. 2): 56 (Abstr.)) demonstrated both positive and negative responses to pork quality criteria in gilts, but little or no response in barrows, when fed chromium from either chromium nicotinate or chromium picolinate. Specifically, a reduction of visual color of the longisimuss dorsi muscle and saturation index (quadratic, P=0.09 and P=0.05, respectively) of gilts with increasing levels of chromium (0, 50,100, 200 and 400-ppb) from chromium nicotinate. The visual color of the longisimuss dorsi from gilts fed 200-ppb chromium from chromium nicotinate was lower (P=0.05) than from those fed 200-ppb from chromium picolinate, however chromium picolinate offered no response (P&gt;0.15) to visual color compared to unsupplemented pigs. Also, gilts fed 200-ppb chromium from chromium picolinate had less (P=0.02) marbling (2.58 vs. 2.88%), but reduced (P=0.08) drip loss percentage (2.04 vs. 2.19%) compared to the controls. Although not significant, barrows fed 200-ppb chromium from chromium picolinate had numerically reduced (P&gt;0.15) marbling (2.63 vs. 2.72%) and greater drip loss (3.73 vs. 3.33%) compared to barrows fed the control diet.
Likewise, research specifically addressing chromium and its potential interaction with dietary energy levels is limited. However, a recent study at the University of Kentucky (van de Ligt, C. P. A., M. D. Lindemann, and G. L. Cromwell. 1998. Assessment of chromium picolinate addition and dietary energy levels on performance of growing pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 76 (Suppl 1): 159 (Abstr.)) measured no effect from chromium from chromium picolinate or chromium.times.metabolizable energy (Cr.times.ME) concentration on the performance or carcass characteristics of growing (from 25.4 to 70.1 kg) PIC barrows.
Chromium in the form of chromium picolinate has been reported to increase swine production (Lindemann, M. D., C. M. Wood, A. F. Harper, E. T. Komegay, and R. A. Anderson. 1995b. Dietary chromium picolinate additions improve gain:feed and carcass characteristics in growing-finishing pigs and increase litter size in reproducing sows. J. Anim. Sci. 73:457-465). Chromium picolinate has been shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,336,672 to increase egg production in poultry that have been supplemented with this type of chromium. Additionally, the effects of chromium picolinate and chromium chloride on various mammals have been studied. These effects include the growth and carcass traits and plasma metabolites of pigs (Ward, T. L., L. L. Southern, and R. A. Anderson. 1995. Effect of dietary chromium source on growth, carcass characteristics, and plasma metabolite and hormone concentrations in growing-finishing swine. J. Anim. Sci. 73 (Suppl 1): 189 (Abstr.)), the effects on performance and nitrogen balance and endocrine in lambs (Kitchalong et al., 1993), essential role of chromium in ruminants (Samsell, L. J. 1987. Studies on possible essential roles of chromium in the ruminate. M. S. Thesis. North Carolina State Univ. Raleigh, N.C.), and the effects of chromium in egg cholesterol and egg fat and egg protein in poultry.
There has been no prior reference that has suggested that providing chromium in the form of chromium propionate as a supplement to an energy balanced diet would increase the mammals production characteristics beyond that of chromium picolinate. In fact, the suggestions in the literature have been the opposite, since metal picolinates have been suggested to make metals more biologically available for absorption than other organic acids. U.S. Pat. No. 4,315,927 (1982).
In an insulin challenge test (IVICT), glucose clearance increased (P&lt;0.02) in pigs fed KemTRACE.RTM. Chromium and tended to increase (P&lt;0.12) in pigs fed chromium picolinate, with the glucose clearance in the KemTRACE.RTM. Chromium group increasing 18% over pigs fed chromium picolinate, and 45% over the control pigs not receiving chromium supplementation. Similarly, glucose half-life (t.sub.1/2) was reduced (P&lt;0.03) by 23% and 35% for the chromium picolinate and KemTRACE.RTM. Chromium treatments, respectively, when compared to the non-supplemented pigs. Matthews, J. O., L. L. Southern, J. M. Fernandez, A. M. Chapa, L. R. Gentry and T. D. Binder. 1997. Effects of dietary chromium tripicolinate or chromium propionate on growth, plasma metabolites, glucose tolerance, and insulin sensitivity in pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 75 (Suppl. 1): 187 (Abstr.)
An object of this invention is to provide a feed additive, chromium propionate, that increases the average daily gain of the animal while maintaining or reducing the dietary energy level in the diet of the animal.
Another object of this invention is to provide a feed additive that improves the meat quality of the animal, through increased marbling, reduced moisture in muscle tissue, reduced purge/drip loss, and/or improved firmness/wetness scores.
A further object of this invention is to provide a feed additive to a less energy dense feed such that the average daily gain of the mammal is maintained on a less expensive feed.